Q 1: Elaborate the difference among sociograms, social distance scale and guess who questionnaire in terms of their use.
Answer:
A sociogram is a visual representation or map of the relationships
between individuals. Learn more about sociograms from examples and test
your knowledge with a quiz.
Definition of Sociogram
Suppose you are a seventh grade teacher. There are ten students in your
classroom: Mike, Olivia, Connor, Tracy, Lena, Darren, James, Tiona,
Lisa, and Taylor. You notice that your male and female students have not
been getting along well in recent weeks. You are interested in looking
at the relationships between your students to help you understand what
is going on in your classroom. One method that can help you examine
relationships is creating a sociogram.
A sociogram is a visual depiction of the relationships among a
specific group. The purpose of a sociogram is to uncover the underlying
relationships between people. A sociogram can be used to increase your
understanding of group behaviors.
How Do You Create a Sociogram?
Before you begin to create a sociogram of the students in your
classroom, you must first come up with a criterion, which is what you
want to measure. The criterion that you use is usually some question
about a specific type of social interaction. A criterion can be either
positive or negative.
Positive criterions are those that ask the students to choose something that they either enjoy or would like to participate in with others. Negative criterions
ask students to choose something that they would not enjoy. Negative
criterions are used to discover resistance or rejection in interpersonal
relationships.
Examples of positive criterions that can be used to create a sociogram are:
- Which three classmates would you most like to go on a vacation with?
- Which three classmates are your best friends?
- Which three classmates do you like the most?
Examples of negative criterions that can be used to create a sociogram are:
- Which three classmates would you least enjoy going on a vacation with?
- Which three classmates do you like to be around the least?
- Which three classmates would you least like to be stranded on an island with?
Once your students have all answered the question, you tabulate the results and use them to create a sociogram.
Sociologist R.E. Park (1923) coined the term social distance for the
first time while describing the observed fact that the kinds of
situations in which contact occurs between a dominant group and
subordinates vary in their degree of intimacy like, from Kinship by
marriage, residence in the same neighbourhood, work in the same
occupation to absolutely no contact.
Emory Bogardus, an eminent sociologist of the University of Southern
California in 1942 developed a scale for measuring the social distances
among various groups in the United States. It was further given
prominence by Katz and Allport under the able guidance of Gallet and
Bogardus.
Bogardus was interested in measuring racial attitudes, attitudes of
people towards different races, towards different nationalities and
comparing them through his social distance scale.
The procedure of the construction of the scale is as follows:
The investigator first formulates various statements indicating different degrees of acceptance or rejection of the group.
The subject has to indicate how close or how far away he is from the
members of the other group. A distance is measured by these statements
which are basically psychological. A favourable attitude is indicated by
the closeness and an unfavourable attitude is indicated by distance.
The greater the distance the greater is the unfavourable attitude and
less the distance the greater is the favourable attitude.
The psychological distance is progressively increased in the scale as
one proceeds from the first to the last statement starting from close
kinship by marriage to exclusion from the country. Bogardus thus asked
the respondents to indicate to which of the following steps they would
admit members of the various groups in the United States of America.
Guess who questionnaire in terms of their use
This worksheet includes prompt questions to help students play the game
'guess who?'. It is for beginner level. The worksheet includes short
questions and descriptions of people. It is to help students to complete
a meaningful speaking activity where they have to guess the identity of
their partner's character based on questions about their appearance.
The game can be played with 2 or more players.
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Q 2: Describe the terms of stress and anxiety for test. As a teacher
what measures you suggest to reduce the test anxiety of the students.
Answer:
Many people experience stress or anxiety before an exam. In fact, a
little nervousness can actually help you perform your best. However,
when this distress becomes so excessive that it actually interferes with
performance on an exam, it is known as test anxiety.
What does it feel like to experience test anxiety? You paid attention in
class, took detailed notes, read every chapter, and even attended extra
study sessions after class, so you should do great on that big exam,
right? When the test is presented, however, you find yourself so nervous
that you blank out the answers to even the easiest questions. If this
experience sounds familiar, then you might be suffering from test
anxiety.
What Is Text Anxiety?
Test anxiety is a psychological condition in which people experience
extreme distress and anxiety in testing situations. While many people
experience some degree of stress and anxiety before and during exams,
test anxiety can actually impair learning and hurt test performance.
Test anxiety is a type of performance anxiety. In situations where the
pressure is on and a good performance counts, people can become so
anxious that they are actually unable to do their best. Other examples
of performance anxiety:
- A high school basketball player becomes very anxious before a big game. During the game, he is so overwhelmed by this stress that he starts missing even easy shots.
- A violin student becomes extremely nervous before a recital. During the performance, she messes up on several key passages and flubs her solo.
- During a work presentation, a businessman freezes up and forgets the information he was going to present to his co-workers and manager.
While people have the skills and knowledge to do very well in these
situations, their excessive anxiety impairs their performance.
The severity of test anxiety can vary considerably from one person to
another. Some people might feel like they have "butterflies" in their
stomach and while others might find it difficult to concentrate on the
exam.
A little bit of nervousness can actually be helpful, making you feel
mentally alert and ready to tackle the challenges presented in an exam.
The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that there is a link between arousal
levels and performance. Essentially, increased arousal levels can help
you do better on exams, but only up to a certain point. Once these
stress levels cross that line, the excessive anxiety you might be
experiencing can actually interfere with test performance.
Excessive fear can make it difficult to concentrate and you might
struggle to recall things that you have studied. You might feel like all
the information you spent some much time reviewing suddenly seems
inaccessible in your mind. You blank out the answers to questions to
which you know you know the answers. This inability to concentrate and
recall information then contributes to even more anxiety and stress,
which only makes it that much harder to focus your attention on the
test.
Overcoming Test Anxiety
So what exactly can you do to prevent or minimize test anxiety? Here are some strategies to help:
- Make sure you're prepared. That means studying for the test early until you feel comfortable with the material. Don't wait until the night before. If you aren't sure how to study, ask your teacher or parent for help. Being prepared will boost your confidence, which will lessen your test anxiety.
- Banish the negative thoughts. If you start to have anxious or defeated thoughts, such as "I'm not good enough," "I didn't study hard enough," or "I can't do this," push those thoughts away and replace them with positive thoughts. "I can do this," "I know the material," and "I studied hard," can go far in helping to manage your stress level when taking a test.
- Get enough sleep. A good night's sleep will help your concentration and memory.
- Take deep breaths. If you start to feel anxious while you're taking your test, breathe deeply in through your nose and out through your mouth. Work through each question or problem one at a time, taking a deep breath in between each one as needed. Making sure you are giving your lungs plenty of oxygen can help your focus and sense of calm.
- Avoid the perfectionist trap. Don't expect to be perfect. We all make mistakes and that's okay. Knowing you've done your best and worked hard is really all that matters, not perfection.
Therapy and Medications Can Also Help
- If you need extra support, make an appointment with your school counselor or primary care physician.
- Depending on the severity of your symptoms, your physician may also recommend cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), anti-anxiety medications, or a combination of both. CBT focuses on helping people change both the behaviors and underlying thoughts that contribute to the unwanted behaviors or feelings.
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Q 3: Write down learning outcomes for any unit of English for 10th class
and develop an easy type test item with rubric, 5 multiple choice
questions and 5 short questions for the written learning outcomes.
Answer:
English is a main subject of our curriculum and is being taught in our
schools and colleges. It is a language basically and study of English
language, composition, grammar and the literature.
SSC part II, 10th class English paper consists of 20% of objective and
multiple choice questions are main part of it. It has provided the
excellent opportunity for the student of 9th class to prepare their
English paper online. On this page, 9th class students can easily judge
their eligibility of passing examination in notable grades.
9th class students can prepare their subject online here which will be
beneficial for them in passing English subject with exceptional marks.
This online English test contains large number of multiple choice
questions and by attempting these online papers; students can judge
their English preparation in a better way. This is a free platform for
students to prepare English exams to get best accomplishments in annual
exams.
9th class Students can analyze their self by attempting this online test
system as many time as they want until unless they find their self
fully prepared. 9th class students are advised to attempt this online
test for English subject.
Humans are linguistic animals. Language is the most fundamental and
pervasive tool we have for interpreting our world and communicating with
others as we act in and attempt to transform that world. Whether they
pursue an emphasis in literature or writing, English majors gain a
deeper understanding of the resources of the written word. Both
literature and writing courses help students explore how writers use the
creative resources of language-in fiction, poetry, nonfiction prose,
and drama-to explore the entire range of human experience. English
courses help students build skills of analytical and interpretive
argument; become careful and critical readers; practice writing-in a
variety of genres-as a process of intellectual inquiry and creative
expression; and ultimately to become more effective thinkers and
communicators who are well-equipped for a variety of careers in our
information-intensive society.
Specific learning outcomes for English courses include the following:
- Reading: Students will become accomplished, active readers who appreciate ambiguity and complexity, and who can articulate their own interpretations with an awareness and curiosity for other perspectives.
- Writing skills and process: Students will be able to write effectively for a variety of professional and social settings. They will practice writing as a process of motivated inquiry, engaging other writers’ ideas as they explore and develop their own. They will demonstrate an ability to revise for content and edit for grammatical and stylistic clarity. And they will develop an awareness of and confidence in their own voice as a writer.
- Sense of Genre: Students will develop an appreciation of how the formal elements of language and genre shape meaning. They will recognize how writers can transgress or subvert generic expectations, as well as fulfill them. And they will develop a facility at writing in appropriate genres for a variety of purposes and audiences.
- Culture and History: Students will gain a knowledge of the major traditions of literatures written in English, and an appreciation for the diversity of literary and social voices within–and sometimes marginalized by–those traditions. They will develop an ability to read texts in relation to their historical and cultural contexts, in order to gain a richer understanding of both text and context, and to become more aware of themselves as situated historically and culturally.
- Critical Approaches: Students will develop the ability to read works of literary, rhetorical, and cultural criticism, and deploy ideas from these texts in their own reading and writing. They will express their own ideas as informed opinions that are in dialogue with a larger community of interpreters, and understand how their own approach compares to the variety of critical and theoretical approaches.
- Research Skills: Students will be able to identify topics and formulate questions for productive inquiry; they will identify appropriate methods and sources for research and evaluate critically the sources they find; and they will use their chosen sources effectively in their own writing, citing all sources appropriately.
- Oral communication skills: Students will demonstrate the skills needed to participate in a conversation that builds knowledge collaboratively: listening carefully and respectfully to others’ viewpoints; articulating their own ideas and questions clearly; and situating their own ideas in relation to other voices and ideas. Students will be able to prepare, organize, and deliver an engaging oral presentation.
- Valuing literature, language, and imagination: Students will develop a passion for literature and language. They will appreciate literature’s ability to elicit feeling, cultivate the imagination, and call us to account as humans. They will cultivate their capacity to judge the aesthetic and ethical value of literary texts–and be able to articulate the standards behind their judgments. They will appreciate the expressive use of language as a fundamental and sustaining human activity, preparing for a life of learning as readers and writers.
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Q 4: a) Suggest measures to reduce cultural bias in the test?
Answer:
What is Cultural Bias?
Cultural bias in testing refers to a situation in which a given test is
inappropriate for a certain audience as it does not test the student's
actual knowledge of a taught subject or includes details tied to a
culture that the student is unfamiliar with. As the test is not about
the topic of culture, the test should not include cultural tidbits that
would throw off certain students. Try as we might to make tests fair, it
still happens today.
Gender Bias
Sometimes tests — for example, tests for gifted and talented programs —
include questions or probing for leadership from the testing student.
What these types of tests do not take into consideration is that there
are various cultures in which girls are still trained to be followers
and boys the natural leaders. Therefore, due to no fault of their own,
girls may not score well on this topic and then not qualify for the
program. Likewise on vocabulary tests, gender roles and exposure to
certain types of language may also contribute to whether or not a girl
or boy gets the vocabulary term right.
Unbalanced Special Education Referrals
In recent years, the process of referring a child for special education
services has become more and more complex. Educators and others began to
notice the unbalanced number of ethnic minorities being referred to and
assigned special education services. Many of the oversights being made
were due to other disadvantages such as a low socio-economic level or
less exposure to academic materials in early childhood. Second language
learners were also regularly referred when their deficiencies were due
to learning to pronounce a new language correctly or needing more time
to learn the language
Yet these factors were contributing to many students receiving a label
early on that cannot be escaped from until their school career was over.
They were labeled for life. For this reason, many districts are now
implementing policies in which teachers must first show what
interventions they have used with these students in order to try to
catch them up with the class. By documenting these interventions and
monitoring the results, it was easier to see who just needed a leg up
and who might actually need special education services. Today, it is
more likely that students receiving these services, along with being
integrated into classroom strategies and using small group
interventions, are students who truly do require these services.
Language Discrimination
The United States today has a changing population. There are more and
more languages other than English spoken in homes across the country.
When it comes to testing, this can pose potential problems, not because
students should not be expected to achieve a high level of English as
the mainstream language but because sometimes cultural factors to find
their way into what vocabulary a student is exposed to. For example, one
test that I gave to early childhood students asked the children to
identify which picture was a casserole. Casserole is not a dish that all
households make. To be frank, a casserole can be composed of so many
combinations of things, it doesn't seem fair to have to identify one by
sight regardless of cultural background; however, this was one of the
questions. Children in Iowa where the test was developed may or may not
be more culturally aware of what a casserole is, but in inner city
schools in Texas, most of us have never really had a casserole in our
lives. I would think it safe to assume that many adults here could not
identify a casserole by sight.
Fair and Equitable Testing
For gifted and talented programs, some teachers have begun implementing
or requesting non-verbal testing, especially for early childhood
students, so that language and speech development do not block children
who are gifted in other ways from entering the program. Ask your campus
gifted and talented teacher what the process is to enter the program and
what type of entrance exam the students will be given. Sometimes other
forms of evidence can be submitted in the student's favor as well. You
can also suggest or research tests that demonstrate student ability
through multiple intelligences instead of standard forms of testing. In
the classroom, you can give open-ended tests which allow for student
expression and interpretation of knowledge instead of rote memorization
and allow for students to justify their ideas and answers. Using these
techniques will help to avoid and eliminate cultural bias in testing.
Finally, when standardized testing comes around, be an advocate by
noticing questions or topics which reveal obvious cultural bias and
report them to your school official or testing agency. Test writers may
not be as aware of these intricacies as the teachers who interact with
students every day. If enough people speak up, changes might be made.
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Q 4: b) Elaborate the importance of entrance tests in the universities?
Answer:
While exploring undergraduate or graduate level education, applicants
are bound to come across some form of required examination or an
aptitude test as being a requirement for admission. Some universities
even go to the extent of indicating the sum of scores needed to make the
cutoff point. So what are these exams and what do they normally
measure?
In general, we can classify these exams into three broad categories. One
would be the general English language proficiency tests that are
required of non-native English language speakers, in this case being the
TOEFL and IELTS. Second would be the general aptitude tests like the
PSAT, ACT, SAT (for undergraduate) and the GMAT and GRE (for graduate
level studies) mostly for the universities in the US and Canada. Third
would be the field specific exams for Law school and Medical school like
the MCAT, UKCAT, PCAT, and LSAT, etc that would be focused for
admission to a singular program.
In most cases these tests are administered by an independent testing
center or a professional association. The main objective is to provide a
common yard stick to measure the potentials of all applicants that
might come from different backgrounds and curricular against a
standardized set of skills that would be required by a specific program.
It provides university and college admission counselors with a clear
cut measure that is somewhat effective, in trying to assess a
candidate’s ability to join their program. There are schools that don’t
make these exams a requirement. But more and more schools are becoming
inclined towards making them mandatory as these tests do give some
indication about the applicant and therefore it is advisable to in most
cases to consider taking these exams.
The exam results are important and students should be well prepared.
There are many ways to prepare for these exams and I would not look down
on coaching centers and tutors as they can provide a lot of insight and
tips that help students. The world is very competitive and professional
coaching can only help. What is also worth knowing is that the exams
are only one part of the entire admissions criteria. American
Universities, especially the more competitive college take a holistic
view of the student and non academic criteria can be critical in getting
or denying admission. Your academic scores, essays, recommendation
letters, community service and extracurricular activities are equally
important. Apart from professional coaching educational consultancy is a
must for pursuing undergraduate or postgraduate degrees abroad..
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Q 5: Give the characteristics of normal curve, also discuss its uses in educational assessment?
Answer:
Known characteristics of the normal curve make it possible to estimate
the probability of occurrence of any value of a normally distributed
variable. Suppose that the total area under the curve is defined to be
1. You can multiply that number by 100 and say there is a 100 percent
chance that any value you can name will be somewhere in the
distribution. ( Remember : The distribution extends to infinity in both
directions.) Similarly, because half the area of the curve is below the
mean and half is above it, you can say that there is a 50 percent chance
that a randomly chosen value will be above the mean and the same chance
that it will be below it.
It makes sense that the area under the normal curve is equivalent to the
probability of randomly drawing a value in that range. The area is
greatest in the middle, where the “hump” is, and thins out toward the
tails. That is consistent with the fact that there are more values close
to the mean in a normal distribution than far from it.
When the area of the standard normal curve is divided into sections by
standard deviations above and below the mean, the area in each section
is a known quantity (see Figure 1). As explained earlier, the area in
each section is the same as the probability of randomly drawing a value
in that range.
Figure 1.The normal curve and the area under the curve between σ units.
For example, 0.3413 of the curve falls between the mean and one standard
deviation above the mean, which means that about 34 percent of all the
values of a normally distributed variable are between the mean and one
standard deviation above it. It also means that there is a 0.3413 chance
that a value drawn at random from the distribution will lie between
these two points.
Sections of the curve above and below the mean may be added together to
find the probability of obtaining a value within (plus or minus) a given
number of standard deviations of the mean (see Figure 2). For example,
the amount of curve area between one standard deviation above the mean
and one standard deviation below is 0.3413 + 0.3413 = 0.6826, which
means that approximately 68.26 percent of the values lie in that range.
Similarly, about 95 percent of the values lie within two standard
deviations of the mean, and 99.7 percent of the values lie within three
standard deviations.
Figure 2.The normal curve and the area under the curve between σ units.
In order to use the area of the normal curve to determine the
probability of occurrence of a given value, the value must first be
standardized, or converted to a z‐score . To convert a value to a
z‐score is to express it in terms of how many standard deviations it is
above or below the mean. After the z‐score is obtained, you can look up
its corresponding probability in a table. The formula to compute a
z‐score is
where x is the value to be converted, μ is the population mean, and σ is the population standard deviation.
Example A normal distribution of retail‐store purchases has a
mean of $14.31 and a standard deviation of 6.40. What percentage of
purchases were under $10? First, compute the z‐score:
The next step is to look up the z‐score in the table of standard normal
probabilities (see Table 2 in "Statistics Tables"). The standard normal
table lists the probabilities (curve areas) associated with given
z‐scores.
Table 2 in "Statistics Tables" gives the area of the curve below z—in
other words, the probability of obtaining a value of z or lower. Not all
standard normal tables use the same format, however. Some list only
positive z‐scores and give the area of the curve between the mean and z.
Such a table is slightly more difficult to use, but the fact that the
normal curve is symmetric makes it possible to use it to determine the
probability associated with any z‐score, and vice versa.
To use Table 2 (the table of standard normal probabilities) in
"Statistics Tables," first look up the z‐score in the left column, which
lists zto the first decimal place. Then look along the top row for the
second decimal place. The intersection of the row and column is the
probability. In the example, you first find –0.6 in the left column and
then 0.07 in the top row. Their intersection is 0.2514. The answer,
then, is that about 25 percent of the purchases were under $10 (see
Figure 3).
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